Will what works in air work in water?
For the past few years a San Francisco company has been working on
small, maneuverable submarines designed to travel through water using wings,
controls, and thrusters that are similar to those on jet airplanes. After all,
water (for submarines) and air (for airplanes) are both fluids, so it is
expected that many of the principles governing the flight of airplanes should
carry over to the “flight” of winged submarines. Of course, there are differences.
For example, the submarine must be designed to withstand external pressures of
nearly 700 pounds per square inch greater than that inside the vehicle. On the
other hand, at high altitude where commercial jets fly, the exterior pressure
is 3.5 psi rather than standard sea level pressure of 14.7 psi, so the vehicle
must be pressurized internally for passenger comfort. In both cases, however,
the design of the craft for minimal drag, maximum lift, and efficient thrust is
governed by the same fluid dynamic concepts.
How long is a foot?
Today, in the United States, the common length unit is the foot, but
throughout antiquity the unit used to measure length has quite a history. The
first length units were based on the lengths of various body parts. One of the
earliest units was the Egyptian cubit, first used around 3000 B.C. and defined
as the
length of the arm from elbow to extended fingertips. Other measures
followed, with the foot simply taken as the length of a man’s foot. Since this
length obviously varies from person to person it was often “standardized” by
using the length of the current reigning royalty’s foot. In 1791 a special
French commission proposed that a new universal length unit called a meter
(metre) be defined as the distance of one-quarter of the earth’s meridian
(north pole to the equator) divided by 10 million. Although controversial, the
meter was accepted in 1799 as the standard. With the development of advanced
technology, the length of a meter was redefined in 1983 as the distance
traveled by light in a vacuum during the time interval of s. The foot is now
defined as 0.3048 meters. Our simple rulers and yardsticks indeed have an
intriguing history.
Units and space travel A NASA spacecraft, the Mars Climate Orbiter, was launched in December 1998 to study the Martian geography and weather
patterns. The spacecraft was slated to begin orbiting Mars on September 23,
1999. However, NASA officials lost communication with the spacecraft early that
day and it is believed that the spacecraft broke apart or overheated because it
came too close to the surface of Mars. Errors in the maneuvering commands sent from earth caused the Orbiter to sweep within
37 miles of the surface rather than the intended 93 miles. The subsequent
investigation revealed that the errors were due to a simple mix-up in units. One team controlling the Orbiter
used SI units whereas another team used British Gravitational (BG) System
units. This costly experience illustrates the importance of using a consistent
system of units.
This water jet is a
blast Usually liquids can
be treated as incompressible fluids. However, in some applications the compressibility
of a liquid can play a key role in the operation of a device. For example, a
water pulse generator using compressed water has been developed for use in
mining operations. It can fracture rock by producing an effect comparable to a
conventional explosive such as gunpowder. The device uses the energy stored in
a water-filled accumulator to generate an ultrahigh-pressure water pulse
ejected through a 10- to 25-mm-diameter discharge valve. At the ultrahigh
pressures used (300 to 400 MPa, or 3000 to 4000 atmospheres), the water is
compressed (i.e., the volume reduced) by about 10 to 15%. When a fast-opening
valve within the pressure vessel is opened, the water expands and produces a
jet of water that upon impact with the target material produces an effect
similar to the explosive force from conventional explosives. Mining with the
water jet can eliminate various hazards that arise with the use of conventional
chemical explosives, such as those associated with the storage and use of
explosives and the generation of toxic gas by-products that require extensive
ventilation.
Spreading of oil spills
With the large traffic in oil tankers
there is great interest in the prevention of and
response to oil spills. As evidenced by the famous Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound in 1989, oil spills
can create disastrous environmental problems. It is not surprising that much
attention is given to the rate at which an oil spill spreads. When spilled,
most oils tend to spread horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface,
called a slick. There are many factors which influence the ability of an oil
slick to spread, including the size of the spill, wind speed and direction, and
the physical properties of the oil. These properties include surface tension, specific gravity, and viscosity. The higher the surface
tension the more likely a spill will remain in place. Since the specific
gravity of oil is less than one, it floats on top of the water, but the
specific gravity of an oil can increase if the lighter substances within the
oil evaporate. The higher the viscosity of the oil the greater the tendency to
stay in one place.
Giraffe’s blood
pressure A giraffe’s long neck
allows it to graze up to 6 m above the ground. It can also lower its head to drink at ground level. Thus,
in the circulatory system there is a significant hydrostatic
pressure effect due to this elevation change. To maintain blood to its head
throughout this change in elevation, the giraffe must maintain a relatively
high blood pressure at heart level—approximately two and a half times that in
humans. To prevent rupture of blood vessels in the high-pressure lower leg
regions, giraffes have a tight sheath of thick skin over their lower limbs
which acts like an elastic bandage in exactly the same way as do the g-suits of
fighter pilots. In addition, valves in the upper neck prevent back flow into
the head when the giraffe lowers its head to ground level. It is also thought
that blood vessels in the giraffe’s kidney have a special mechanism to prevent
large changes in filtration rate when blood pressure increases or decreases
with its head movement.
Weather, barometers, and bars One of the most important indicators of weather conditions is atmospheric
pressure. In general, a falling or low pressure indicates bad weather;
rising or high pressure, good weather. During the evening TV weather report in
the United States, atmospheric pressure is given as so many inches (commonly
around 30 in.). This value is actually the height of the mercury column in a
mercury barometer adjusted to sea
level. To determine the true atmospheric pressure at a particular location, the
elevation relative to sea level must be known. Another unit used by
meteorologists to indicate atmospheric pressure is the bar, first used in weather reporting in 1914, and defined as 105
Nm2 . The definition of a bar is probably related to the fact that standard sea
level pressure is 1.0133 X 105 Nm2 , that is, only slightly larger than one
bar. For typical weather patterns, “sea-level equivalent” atmospheric pressure
remains close to one bar. However, for extreme weather conditions associated
with tornadoes, hurricanes, or typhoons, dramatic changes can occur. The lowest
atmospheric sea-level pressure ever recorded was associated with a typhoon,
Typhoon Tip, in the Pacific Ocean on October 12, 1979. The value was 0.870 bars
(25.8 in. Hg).
Tire pressure warning Proper tire inflation on vehicles is important for more than
ensuring long tread life. It
is critical in preventing accidents such as rollover accidents caused by under
inflation of tires. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is
developing a regulation regarding four-tire tire-pressure monitoring systems
that can warn a driver when a tire is more than 25 percent under inflated. Some
of these devices are currently in operation on select vehicles; it is expected
that they will soon be required on all vehicles. A typical tire-pressure
monitoring system fits within the tire and contains a pressure transducer (usually either a piezo-resistive or a capacitive
type transducer) and a transmitter that sends the information to an electronic
control unit within the vehicle. Information about tire pressure and a warning
when the tire is under inflated is displayed on the instrument panel. The environment (hot, cold, vibration) in which these devices must operate,
their small size, and required low cost provide challenging constraints for the
design engineer.
Miniature, exploding pressure vessels Our daily lives are safer because of the effort put forth by engineers to design safe, lightweight pressure
vessels such as boilers, propane tanks, and pop bottles. Without proper design,
the large hydrostatic pressure forces on the curved surfaces of such containers
could cause the vessel to explode with disastrous consequences. On the other
hand, the world is a more friendly place because of miniature pressure vessels
that are designed to explode under the proper conditions—popcorn kernels. Each
grain of popcorn contains a small amount of water within the special,
impervious hull (pressure vessel) which, when heated to a proper temperature,
turns to steam, causing the kernel to explode and turn itself inside out. Not
all popcorn kernels have the proper properties to make them pop well. First,
the kernel must be quite close to 13.5% water. With too little moisture, not enough steam will build up to pop the
kernel; too much moisture causes the kernel to pop into a dense sphere rather
than the light fluffy delicacy expected. Second, to allow the pressure to build
up, the kernels must not be cracked or damaged.
Pressurized eyes Our eyes need a certain amount of internal pressure in order
to work properly, with the
normal range being between 10 and 20 mm of mercury. The pressure is determined
by a balance between the fluid entering and leaving the eye. If the pressure is
above the normal level, damage may occur to the optic nerve where it leaves the
eye, leading to a loss of the visual field termed glaucoma. Measurement of the
pressure within the eye can be done by several different noninvasive types of
instruments, all of which measure the slight deformation of the eyeball when a
force is put on it. Some methods use a physical probe that makes contact with
the front of the eye, applies a known force, and measures the deformation. One
non contact method uses a calibrated “puff” of air that is blown against the
eye. The stagnation pressure
resulting from the air blowing against the eyeball causes a slight deformation,
the magnitude of which is correlated with the pressure within the eyeball.
